Social Movements in India
Features Of A Social Movement
A social movement is a sustained, organized collective effort by a large group of people to bring about or resist social change. It is a form of collective action that is more organized and long-lasting than a riot or a mob, but less institutionalized than a political party or an interest group. Social movements are a key feature of modern democratic societies, providing a channel for ordinary people to challenge the existing social order and articulate their demands.
While social movements are diverse, they generally share a set of common features:
- Collective Action: A social movement involves a group of people acting together, not just isolated individuals.
- Organization: Movements have some form of organization, which can range from informal networks to formal structures with leaders, decision-making processes, and strategies.
- Sustained Effort: A social movement is not a single event but a continuous effort that unfolds over a long period of time.
- Shared Objectives and Ideology: The participants in a movement are united by a common set of goals and a shared ideology—a set of beliefs and ideas that explains the problem, identifies the cause, and proposes a solution.
- Use of Various Modes of Protest: Movements use a range of methods to press their demands, from peaceful and institutional means like petitions and demonstrations to non-institutional and sometimes disruptive methods like strikes, civil disobedience, and boycotts.
- Aim of Social Change: The ultimate goal of a social movement is to promote, resist, or undo a change in society.
Sociology And Social Movements
The study of social movements is a central area of sociological inquiry. It provides a unique window into the dynamics of social conflict, power relations, and the processes of social change.
Why The Study Of Social Movements Is Important For Sociology
Sociology is interested in social movements because they represent a break from the routine and the taken-for-granted. They are moments when the underlying tensions and contradictions within a society become visible. By studying social movements, sociologists can understand:
- The sources of social discontent and inequality.
- How new social identities are forged and asserted. - The relationship between the state and civil society. - The mechanisms through which social change occurs from below.
Emile Durkheim's concept of 'social facts' being external to the individual seems to be contradicted by social movements, which show that collective human action can challenge and change these very social facts. This demonstrates that society is not just a static structure but a dynamic process that is constantly being shaped and reshaped by human agency.
Theories Of Social Movements
Sociologists have developed various theories to explain why social movements emerge.
- Relative Deprivation Theory: This theory suggests that social movements arise when a group of people feel a sense of 'relative deprivation'—a perceived gap between what they expect and what they actually get. It is not absolute poverty, but the feeling of being unfairly deprived in comparison to others, that fuels protest.
- Resource Mobilization Theory: This theory, developed by Mancur Olson and others, critiques the idea that movements are just a spontaneous outcome of discontent. It argues that discontent is always present, but a movement can only emerge if a group has the ability to mobilize resources. These resources can include leadership, organization, money, communication networks, and support from outside elites. This theory emphasizes the importance of organization and strategy in the success of a movement.
- Political Process Theory: This theory argues that the emergence of a movement is dependent on the existence of a favourable 'political opportunity structure'. A movement is more likely to succeed when the state is vulnerable or divided, when public opinion is sympathetic, and when the movement has influential allies.
Types Of Social Movements
Social movements can be classified in various ways based on their goals, methods, and the kind of change they seek.
One Way Of Classifying: Reformist, Redemptive, Revolutionary
This classification is based on the scope and nature of the change sought.
- Reformist Movements: These movements accept the basic structure of society but seek to change some specific aspect of it through gradual, institutional means. Most social movements fall into this category. Example: The movement for the Right to Information Act in India.
- Redemptive Movements: These movements are focused on changing individuals rather than society as a whole. They aim for a radical transformation of the self. Example: Religious conversion movements or self-help groups like Alcoholics Anonymous.
- Revolutionary Movements: These movements seek to overthrow the existing social and political order and replace it with a completely new one. Example: The Naxalite movement in India, which aims for a revolutionary transformation of the state and society based on Maoist ideology.
Another Way Of Classifying: Old And New
This classification distinguishes between the social movements of the industrial era ('old') and those that have emerged in the post-industrial, globalized era ('new').
| Feature | 'Old' Social Movements | 'New' Social Movements |
|---|---|---|
| Primary Focus | Class-based issues related to economic inequality and the redistribution of power (e.g., workers' movements, peasant movements). | 'Quality of life' issues such as gender, environment, human rights, and identity. |
| Social Base | Primarily the industrial working class or peasantry. | Cross-class base, often led by the new middle class (students, intellectuals, professionals). |
| Organizational Structure | Often hierarchical, with formal leadership (e.g., trade unions, political parties). | Often decentralized, non-hierarchical, and network-based. |
| Arena of Action | Mainly focused on capturing state power. | Focused on influencing civil society, culture, and state policy, often with a global dimension. |
| Example | The Bolshevik Revolution in Russia; Trade union movements in the West. | The women's movement, the environmental movement, the LGBTQ+ rights movement. |
While this is a useful distinction, the line between 'old' and 'new' is often blurry in a country like India, where class-based issues and identity-based issues are deeply intertwined.
Ecological Movements
Ecological or environmental movements are a classic example of 'new' social movements. They are concerned with the environmental consequences of development and seek to promote a more sustainable and equitable relationship between society and nature.
Example: The Chipko Movement
The Chipko movement, which emerged in the Himalayan region of Uttarakhand in the 1970s, is one of the most famous environmental movements in the world.
- The Issue: The movement began as a protest by local villagers against the state's policy of allowing commercial logging companies to cut down forests, which were vital for the villagers' livelihood (providing fuel, fodder, and water).
- Method of Protest: The movement became famous for its unique method of non-violent protest, where villagers, especially women, would hug the trees ('chipko' means to hug or cling to) to prevent them from being felled by the loggers. - Ideology: The movement articulated a powerful ecological philosophy, arguing that the local communities had a right to their resources and that their traditional, sustainable use of the forest was superior to the state's commercial-minded approach. - Significance: The Chipko movement was successful in getting a ban on commercial logging in the region and became a symbol of ecological and feminist struggles across the world. It demonstrated how local, grassroots movements could challenge the dominant model of development.
Class Based Movements
Class-based movements are 'old' social movements that are organized around the economic interests of a particular social class. In India, the two most significant class-based movements have been those of peasants and industrial workers.
Peasant Movements
Peasant movements have a long history in India, dating back to the colonial period. These movements have been organized around issues of land rights, rent, and exploitation by landlords and moneylenders.
- Colonial Period: Peasant movements during this time often took the form of violent rebellions against the oppressive land revenue policies of the British and the exploitation by zamindars (landlords).
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Post-Independence: In the post-independence period, peasant movements have taken different forms.
- The Tebhaga movement in Bengal and the Telangana movement in Andhra Pradesh were radical agrarian movements led by communists, demanding land for the tiller.
- In the 1970s and 80s, a new type of 'farmers' movement' emerged, led by wealthy, market-oriented farmers from states like Punjab, Haryana, and Western Uttar Pradesh. These movements, led by figures like Mahendra Singh Tikait, were not demanding land reforms but were focused on 'terms of trade' issues, such as demanding higher prices for their produce, lower input costs, and loan waivers.
Workers’ Movements
The workers' or trade union movement in India emerged with the growth of modern industries in cities like Bombay, Calcutta, and Madras in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.
- Early Phase: Initially focused on improving the harsh working conditions in factories, demanding better wages, and shorter working hours. The trade union movement was closely associated with the nationalist movement, and many prominent nationalist leaders were also trade union leaders.
- Post-Independence: The trade union movement grew in strength, but it was also fragmented due to its close affiliation with different political parties.
- Impact of Liberalisation: Since the economic liberalization of the 1990s, the organized sector trade union movement has been on the decline. The shift towards a more flexible and informal labour market has weakened the bargaining power of unions. However, there is a growing need for organization and mobilization among the vast number of workers in the unorganized sector.
Caste Based Movements
Caste has been a powerful basis for social mobilization in India. These movements are a response to the historical injustices of the caste system and are a struggle for social equality, self-respect, and political power.
The Dalit Movement
The Dalit movement is the collective struggle of the communities formerly known as 'untouchables' against caste oppression.
- Early Roots: The movement has its roots in the anti-caste social reform movements of the 19th century, led by figures like Jyotiba Phule in Maharashtra.
- Dr. B.R. Ambedkar: The most important leader of the Dalit movement was Dr. B.R. Ambedkar, who provided it with a powerful political and ideological vision. He fought for political representation for Dalits (through separate electorates and later, reservations), championed their educational advancement, and ultimately, rejected Hinduism by converting to Buddhism along with his followers in 1956.
- Contemporary Dalit Movement: The contemporary movement is diverse. It includes political mobilization through parties like the Bahujan Samaj Party (BSP), grassroots activism on issues of atrocities and discrimination, and a vibrant 'Dalit literature' movement that expresses the pain and anger of Dalit experience.
Backward Class Castes Movements
These are movements of the Shudra castes, who are located above the Dalits but below the 'twice-born' upper castes in the traditional hierarchy. These movements, which gained momentum in the early 20th century, especially in South India, were a challenge to the dominance of the Brahmins in education, government jobs, and politics. The Self-Respect Movement led by E.V. Ramasamy 'Periyar' in Tamil Nadu was a radical anti-Brahmin and anti-caste movement. The implementation of the Mandal Commission report in 1990 marked the culmination of the political assertion of these 'Other Backward Classes' on the national stage.
The Tribal Movements
Tribal or Adivasi movements are a struggle against the exploitation and dispossession of tribal communities by outsiders (often referred to as 'dikus').
Jharkhand
The movement for a separate state of Jharkhand is one of the oldest and most significant tribal movements in India.
- The region of Chotanagpur in southern Bihar was rich in minerals and forests, but its tribal population remained impoverished as the resources were extracted for the benefit of the rest of the country. - The movement began in the early 20th century with demands for protection against exploitation by moneylenders and landlords. - After independence, the movement, led by the Jharkhand Mukti Morcha (JMM), took on a more political character, demanding a separate state to protect tribal culture and ensure that the benefits of the region's mineral wealth would go to its own people. - The state of Jharkhand was finally created in the year 2000.
The North East
The tribal movements in the North-Eastern states have been more complex. Due to their distinct history and culture and their geographical location, many communities in the North East did not feel a strong connection to the Indian nation-state at the time of independence. The movements here have ranged from demands for political autonomy and statehood within the Indian Union to, in some cases, outright secession and independence. The Indian state has responded with a mix of political accommodation (granting statehood and autonomous councils) and military suppression of insurgent groups.
The Women’s Movement
The women's movement in India is a diverse and multifaceted struggle against patriarchy and for gender equality.
The 19th Century Social Reform Movements And Early Women’s Organisations
The origins of the women's movement can be traced to the 19th-century social reform movements. Male reformers campaigned for the abolition of practices like sati and child marriage and for the promotion of widow remarriage and women's education. While these reforms were important, they were often framed in a way that saw women as objects of reform rather than as active agents of their own liberation. In the early 20th century, women began to form their own organizations, such as the Women's India Association (WIA) and the All India Women's Conference (AIWC), and played an active role in the nationalist movement.
Agrarian Struggles And Revolts
Women have always been active participants in peasant and workers' struggles, such as the Telangana movement. These struggles provided a space for women to mobilize and fight against both class and patriarchal oppression. However, their specific concerns as women were often not given priority within these male-dominated movements.
Post–1947
The contemporary women's movement, often called the 'second wave', emerged in the 1970s. This was an autonomous movement, independent of political parties, that raised a new set of issues.
- It focused on violence against women, launching major campaigns against rape, dowry deaths, and domestic violence. - It drew attention to the unequal gendered division of labour and the devaluation of women's work. - It has also addressed a wide range of other issues, including the declining sex ratio, political representation, and the impact of economic policies on women.
The women's movement in India is not a single, unified movement but is made up of a diverse range of organizations and perspectives, all working towards the goal of creating a more just and gender-equal society.